雅思阅读 098: Why Some Societies Became Autocracies

Adapted from 'What archaeology reveals about the rise of all-powerful rulers', Scientific American, September 2026.

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Why are some societies ruled by autocrats who make all the decisions with barely any checks and balances, while in others the governed have a say? The traditional story goes: people hunted and gathered in small groups, making decisions collectively. Then agriculture tied them to land, allowed some to store resources, leading to inequality. As cities grew, strong leaders were needed to maintain order. That was the world until ancient Greece invented democracy.

It is a tidy tale but a vast oversimplification, says archaeologist Gary Feinman of the Field Museum in Chicago. His research shows autocracy is not inevitable when populations grow. Less autocratic societies existed around the world, from Teotihuacan in Mexico to Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan.

When Feinman excavated houses in Mexico, he found almost every household made something for exchange. If everyone made goods, it would have been very hard for a central authority to control the economy. No storehouses allowed leaders to hoard resources.

At Teotihuacan, instead of opulent tombs glorifying kings, there were open plazas for public assembly, murals of masked officials rather than named rulers, and temples with wide tops for groups. In China, eastern Shandong province boomed after incorporation into Qins empire, with population growth and better transport infrastructure.

Two large studies tested these ideas. One, published in PNAS, examined inequality across 1,000 archaeological sites. The other, in Science Advances, looked at governance across 40 contexts. Both found that population size matters but explains only about a quarter of the variation. Democracy existed outside ancient Greece and Rome at the same time or earlier.

Feinman argues that the key factor is how resources are channeled. When a state collects tax by taking a little from many farmers, it tends to be more democratic. People can vote with their feet by moving away. But when resources can be monopolized, such as trade routes, mines, war booty or slave plantations, autocracy emerges. With monopolized external resources, rulers do not need to depend on citizens taxes; they can pay a small guard to protect the resource and largely ignore the people.

Questions 1-5

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

1. According to the traditional story, agriculture led to what? A. Democracy B. Inequality and resource storage C. Hunting and gathering D. Smaller populations
2. What did Feinman find when excavating houses in Mexico? A. Every house had a storehouse B. Almost every household made goods for exchange C. Kings lived in opulent palaces D. The state controlled all production
3. What was unusual about Teotihuacan? A. It had huge royal tombs B. It featured public plazas and no named kings C. It was ruled by a single emperor D. It had no buildings
4. Population size explained about how much of the variation in governance? A. All of it B. About half C. About a quarter D. None of it
5. According to Feinman, when is autocracy most likely? A. When tax is collected from many farmers B. When resources can be monopolized C. When populations are small D. When people can move away easily

Questions 6-10

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer? Write YES, NO or NOT GIVEN.

6. The traditional story of governance is accurate in every detail.
7. Teotihuacan had murals glorifying named kings.
8. Eastern Shandong province boomed after joining Qins empire.
9. Democracy existed only in ancient Greece and Rome.
10. Autocrats typically terrorize and exploit their citizens.

Questions 11-13

Complete the summary. Choose ONE WORD ONLY.

When a state collects a little from many farmers, people can 11 with their feet. When rulers control trade routes or mines, they can pay a small 12 to protect the resource and largely 13 the citizens.

Answers

1. B 2. B 3. B 4. C 5. B
2. NO 7. NO 8. YES 9. NO 10. NO
3. vote 12. guard 13. ignore

Key Vocabulary

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